The Sounds of Pageantry
¶Introduction
In sheer scale of sensory experience, few early modern events could compare to London’s pageants and processionals. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century royal entries and Lord Mayor’s Shows were acoustic assaults—just about the loudest things you could hear in the seventeenth
century. Instead of jet engines, sirens, and rock concerts, early moderns found themselves
overwhelmed by trumpets, drums, fifes, and gunfire. These intense sounds, together
with speeches, poetry, dramatic scenes, music, and the noises of teeming crowds, filled
London’s soundscape and helped to define the experience of pageantry.1
We can hear the traces of this soundscape in diaries, descriptions, and records including the correspondence of Orazio Busino, chaplain to the Venetian ambassador, who witnessed a Lord Mayor’s Show when he traveled
to London in 1617:
The [Lord Mayor2] made his progress with the greatest possible pomp he could devise, always alluding to his line of trade with huge expenditure Gap in transcription. Reason: Editorial omission for reasons of length or relevance. Use only in quotations in born-digital documents.[…] We watched as a large flotilla, including the big vessels already mentioned, made an appearance accompanied by innumerable small boats of sightseers Gap in transcription. Reason: Editorial omission for reasons of length or relevance. Use only in quotations in born-digital documents.[…] Accompanied by thundering canon [sic] and fireworks, a very numerous and well-appointed group of musicians sang and played on fifes, drums, and other instruments. They were rowed swiftly upriver with the swelling tide, to the constant peal of firing ordnance. (Busino 1265-66)
Busino recounts the sea spectacles on the Thames that preceded the Lord Mayor’s processional along London’s chief thoroughfares, from the river to St. Paul’s Churchyard, eastward along Cheapside, and ultimately to Guildhall, the seat of the City’s government. Coronation entries proceeded in the opposite
direction, from the Tower of London, westward along Cheapside to Temple Bar, and on to Westminster. The
thunderingsounds that Busino describes must have commanded the ears of everyone—from the rulers and aristocrats in the procession, to the guildsmen lining the pageant route, to the masses surrounding them.
A great variety of sounds made up the soundscape of early modern pageantry. Busino alludes to the harmonies of
well-appointedmusicians (described in
Musicbelow); their music would have ranged from the melodious voices of child singers to the piercing blare of trumpets. Busino also mentions the
constantexplosions of fireworks and gunfire, and he goes on to note that
the insolence of the crowd is extreme,with its noisy,
chaotic mixtureof people (Busino 1266). Amidst all of this tumult, he scarcely alludes to the refined verse and elaborate speeches that the leading poets of the day fashioned for outdoor pageants, to be spoken aloud. These diverse sounds did not always work to a unified purpose: some sounds blasted out a declaration of royal authority, while others asserted the power of livery companies, allowed poets to articulate didactic agendas, or arose from the revelry of bustling crowds—sometimes all at once.
¶Silence
What do overwhelmingly noisy pageants have to do with silence? The poets and artisans
who designed London’s royal entries and Lord Mayor’s Shows faced exactly this question when they worked to make pageants coherent for their
audiences. Each pageant was replete with symbolism: livery companies and the monarchy
incurred huge expense in order to display their eminence and grandeur in painting,
architecture, and visual design. Poets fashioned elaborate allegorical meanings through
their verses, songs, and narratives. Children dressed as mythological personae were
ensconced in ornate arches and finely wrought floats, where they delivered speeches
and performed dramatic enactments honoring their patrons. Amidst the noise, distraction,
and turbulence of the pageant day, it would have been difficult for audience members
to hear and see these elements of pageantry, let alone apprehend their significance.
(See
Crowdsbelow for first-hand accounts.)
Pageant poets addressed this problem by educating their audiences in the symbolic
meaning of the spectacles. Continuing the long tradition of festival books that illustrated
courtly ceremonies and events, poets composed printed pamphlets that commemorated
pageants and outlined their allegorical programs. It is standard for these printed
records to claim to represent all components of a spectacle completely and veraciously,
as in the title page of John Taylor’s 1634 Lord Mayor’s Show The Triumphs of Fame and Honour, which promises that
The particularities of every Invention in all the Pageants, Shewes and Triumphs both by Water and Land, are here following fully set downe(Taylor sig. A2r). All that is literally
set downe,however, is Taylor’s own writing: his idealized, linguistic version of a much larger, incomplete, or more unwieldy event. Other pageant books acknowledge that some of their contents were never performed: Anthony Munday notes that Leofstane’s description of a mining allegory in Chrusothriambos (1611) went unspoken so as to avoid an
offenſiue, and troubleſomdelay, but the speech is nevertheless printed so that readers might peruse it
with much better leyſure(Munday sig. C1v). With notable exceptions including the pageants of Thomas Dekker (as we shall see), pageant books often downplay the performative experience of pageantry. Instead of emphasizing the sonic, visual, and haptic impression on the audience, printed records tend to give the impression that pageants are objects of silent contemplation.
Thomas Middleton’s 1616 pageant Civitatis Amor, which celebrated the investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales, provides an example of the silencing that pageant records made
possible. Middleton’s account begins by alluding to the sea spectacles that preceded the royal party’s arrival at Chelsea, complete with
barges richly decked with banners, steamers, and ensigns, and sundry sorts of loud-sounding instruments aptly placed among them(Middleton 35-37). As was often the case in sea spectacles of the period, these instruments included trumpets wielded by Tritons, mythological messengers accompanying the sea god, Neptune. The first lines of verse in the pageant, spoken by
a personage figuring London,endeavor to subdue the trumpets and the other sounds that filled the air, asking Neptune,
To make our loves the better understood, / Silence thy watery subjects, this small flood(Middleton 54-55).
The rest of Middleton’s pageant book records efforts to control the sounds that are allowed into the celebration.
Neptune follows the command to silence his subjects by addressing all who surround him:
Not a murmur, not a sound,That may this lady’s voice confound.And, Tritons, who by our commanding powerAttend upon the glory of this hour,To do it service and the city grace,Be silent till we wave our silver mace.
(Middleton 61-66)
The allegorical personage London then doubles down on this silencing by demanding the exclusive attention of the host
of citizens and residents in her service:
And you, our honoured sons, whose loyalty,Service, and zeal, shall be expressed of me,Let not your loving, over-greedy noiseBeguile you of the sweetness of your joys.My wish has took effect, for ne’er was knownA greater joy and a more silent one.
(Middleton 67-72)
Middleton does not disguise the
commanding powerof the
over-greedynoise that threatens to disrupt the communicability of his verses and the symbolic content of the spectacle. Yet he frames his description in such a way as to clear out a space for audition, revealing how a preponderance of noise might give way to a
greater,
more silentexperience. It is no coincidence that Middleton’s muted ideal is possible not during the event itself, with its overwhelming commotion, but in a printed pamphlet that allows a poet to decide what is, and is not, recorded.
After all, silence is a cultural imposition—a way of channeling out what we do not
want to hear in a world that is constantly reverberating with sound waves. When pageant
poets and impresarios demand silence, they venture to determine what counts as meaningful.
William Shakespeare’s Prospero reveals this impulse in The Tempest, during the nuptial ceremony of act 4, a spectacle influenced by the Jacobean masque. Prospero begins this
insubstantial pageant,as he calls it, with the command,
No tongue! all eyes! Be silent(Shakespeare 4.1.59, 4.1.155). He continues to manage levels of audition throughout the spectacle, using
Soft music(Shakespeare 4.1.59 s.d.) to set the scene and insisting that the audience remain silent in the middle of it:
Sweet now, silence!Juno and Ceres whisper seriously;There’s something else to do. Hush and be mute,Or else our spell is marred.
(Shakespeare 4.1.124-27)
Prospero is an expert at using art and performance as tools for power; these are the
chief means by which he crafts his dominion over others. His acknowledgement that
his spells can be marred by unwanted sounds reveals his awareness of the importance
of silence to his symbolic and political ends. Fittingly, Prospero’s demands for silent
attention are followed in short order by the
strange, hollow, and confused noisethat interrupts the spectacle, a noise associated with the play’s subaltern rebellion (Shakespeare 4.1.138 s.d.). Like the poets and impresarios of the pageant tradition, Prospero is all too aware of the power, and fragility, of silence.
¶Verse
Shakespeare is uncommon among his fellow poets and dramatists in that (as far as we know) he
was not directly involved in producing any pageants. Many of the period’s most prominent
poets, including Middleton, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, George Gascoigne, Philip Sidney, and Ben Jonson3 wrote the text for one or more outdoor pageants. Printed descriptions of their contributions,
full of sophisticated allusions to antiquity and eloquent lines of verse, helped poets
demonstrate their literary artistry even as a variety of sounds threatened to distract
from what they wrote.
Printed pageant records typically begin with a precise description of their honorees,
setting, commissioning livery companies, and (last but not least) poets. The title
page of John Squire’s 1620 Lord Mayor’s Show Tes Irenes Trophæa or The Tryumphs of Peace, for example, specifies the incumbent mayor, inauguration date, and location, then
announces the livery company that funded this year’s spectacle, which is performed:
At the particular coſt and charge of the right
(Squire sig. A1r)
The poet receives varying amounts of acclaim. While Squire is mentioned by only his initials in Tes Irenes Trophæa, Middleton is allowed more elaborate credit on the title page of his 1613 The Triumphs of Truth:
Directed, written, and redeem’d into Forme from the Ignorance of ſome former times, and theirCommon Writer,By Thomas Middleton.
(Middleton sig. A1r)
It is Middleton’s ability to give the historical subject matter of the pageant
Formeor aesthetic shape that (according to this title page) enables him to
redeemthe past. The printed pamphlet advertises him as more refined and capable than history’s
Common Writer,a term that appears to refer not to a specific person but to a base, mundane style of recording history.
Other poets, including Anthony Munday, share Middleton’s interest in promoting their vocation through pageantry. In his 1605 Lord Mayor’s Show The Triumphs of Reunited Brittania, Munday touts his capacity to mix time periods and draw legend into the present, explaining
that the mythological personages of his devising
ſpeak according to the nature of the preſent buſines in hand, without any imputation of groſneſſe or error, conſidering the lawes of Poeſie grants ſuch allowance and libertye(Munday sig. B1r). For Munday,
the powerfull vertue of Poeſiehas a unique capacity to bear witness to the past, revive a common political purpose, and move across historical barriers (Munday sig. B1v). It is through the virtues of poetry that Brute, the mythological founder of Britain, provides a posthumous retrospective on the unification of the country under James I:
See, after ſo long ſlumbring in our tombsSuch multitudes of yeares, rich poeſieThat does reuiue vs to fill vp theſe roomesAnd tell our former ages Hiſtorie,(The better to record Brutes memorie,)Turnes now our accents to another key,To tell olde Britaines new borne happy day.
(Munday sig. B3r-B3v)
Speaking in the rime royal verse form associated with Chaucer, Brute suggests that poetry both revives English history and provides a means of celebrating
the present.
The irony that underlies Munday’s confidence in the power of poetry here—and the printed pamphlet that records it—is
that the performance of The Triumphs of Reunited Brittania was abruptly cancelled after its floats were destroyed in a storm. The title page
of Munday’s printed record claims that the Lord Mayor was inaugurated
on Tueſday the 29. of October. 1605,as planned, but guild records from that year indicate a different story:
by reason of the greate rayne and fowle weather hapnyng Gap in transcription. Reason: Editorial omission for reasons of length or relevance. Use only in quotations in born-digital documents.[…] the greate coste the Company bestowed upon their Pageant and other shewes were in mann[er] cast away and defaced(qtd. in Sayle 83). The Merchant-Taylor’s livery company produced another version of the Lord Mayor’s ceremony soon afterward, but at a fraction of the cost of the elaborate performance that Munday describes.4 The artful poetry that is recorded in Munday’s printed pamphlet thus departs remarkably from what was spoken and performed—which helps to explain why printed pamphlets were so important for poets in clarifying and preserving their agendas.
Poets took varying outlooks on the ways in which pageant verse related to the environment
of its performance. Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson, for example, disagreed sharply on the role of poetry in The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James, James I’s 1604 coronation processional through the streets of London. Although the poets (begrudgingly) collaborated on the event, Jonson published a record, B. Ion: his part of King Iames his royall and magnificent entertainement, which details only his own contributions, with the clear position that the poet’s
pen supersedes all other dimensions of the pageant. Jonson lays bare his pedantic attitude in a passage explaining why it is unnecessary to
dumb down the spectacle so as to reach the lowest common denominator:
Neither was it becoming, or could it stand with the dignity of these shows, after the most miserable and desperate shift of the puppets, to require a truchman [interpreter] or (with the ignorant painter) one to write, ‘This is a dog’ or ‘This is a hare’, but so to be presented as upon the view they might without cloud or obscurity declare themselves to the sharp and learned. And for the multitude, no doubt but their grounded judgements gazed, said it was fine and were satisfied. (Dekker, Harrison, Jonson, and Middleton 756-645)
Why should a poet bother to explain his verses to
the multitudeif they are incapable of understanding his verse? For Jonson, poetry provides the meaningful essence of the pageant, and the printed record of this poetry provides a means for the
sharp and learnedto remember and appreciate the significance of the event. Audiences and passersby are at best window dressing and, at worst, nuisances.
In Dekker’s account of James I’s coronation (The Magnificent Entertainment giuen to King James), on the contrary, the Genius of London suggests that all of the voices of London’s residents participate in a general chorus:
When every tongue speaks music, when each pen(Dulled and dyed black in gall) is white againAnd dipped in nectar, which by Delphic fireBeing heated, melts into an Orphean choir.
(310-13)
In some ways this passage is just as pedantic as Jonson’s: Dekker’s allusion to
Delphic fireimplies that his own Apollonian pen has the power to heat and fuse the diverse voices that contribute to the pageant into a unified choir. Yet Dekker differs from Jonson by emphasizing that the voices of the multitude are part of his poetry and central to the symbolic meaning of the pageant.
Every tongue speaks musicbecause every audience member contributes to the legitimacy of the celebration, honoring the king through their collective will. Dekker’s poetry is not directed simply toward a pageant book, to be contemplated by a select and private readership. For him, pageant verse is the provenance of the entire City, to be heard, understood and created in performance.
¶Music
In the passage above, music is partly a metaphor for written poetry; tongues
speakmusic and are associated with the ink of
pen[s].Yet, according to Dekker’s metaphor, what makes a poet’s writing sweet are the fiery voices of the choir of Orpheus, the paragon of mythological singers. Pageant poets participate in a performative process that includes not just written records but a range of musical instruments and voices. As Dekker is well aware, a poet’s pen is accompanied by the rhythms and tones of shawms, trumpets, fifes, flutes, tabors, and drums, along with the singing of choruses and soloists.
Among the most conspicuous sounds that resonated through the streets of London on pageant days were the heralds and flourishes of trumpets and cornets. Lord mayor’s shows typically included two to three dozen trumpeters, supplied with banners and sometimes
horses.6 Royal entries were even more extravagant, with mythological personages trumpeting out salutes at
every turn. Drums also resounded through the streets of London on pageant days to salute dignitaries and command the attention of the crowd, from
the staccato beats of tabors to the resonant booms of kettle drums. Since the loud,
august sounds of drums and trumpets were also associated with early modern warfare,
they supplied a sense of patriotic zeal to the occasion.
Music extended well beyond these blaring
soundmarks,a term for sounds that are distinctive or specially regarded in a given social setting (Schafer 10). Sprinkled regularly through royal entries and Lord Mayor’s Shows are songs for boy vocalists that would have been accompanied by viols and other instruments. Royal entries were associated especially with consorts of lute, bandora, base viol, cittern, treble viol, and flute, now known as
mixedor
Englishconsorts. These very well funded monarchal spectacles seem to have involved a wide variety of instrumental and vocal music. In the 1604 Magnificent Entertainment, for example, Dekker’s device at the Little Conduit in Cheapside included a
music roomwith a variety of
tunes that danced round about it; for in one place were heard a noise of cornets, in a second a consort; the third (which sat in sight) a set of viols, to which the Muses sang(Dekker, Harrison, Jonson, and Middleton 1728-31).
The core of the musicians involved in London’s pageants were the city waits, an official group originally derived from the guards stationed on town walls. These
versatile performers alternated between raising the town from sleep in the morning,
playing popular jigs by ear, and performing a courtly repertoire for dignified audiences.
The diverse instruments owned by the city waits gives some indication of the range of their performance capabilities. During the
early seventeenth century they played shawms, sackbuts, viols, recorders (or flutes),
cornets, curtals, violins and lutes (Marsh 121-122). Nearly all towns employed several waits, and London’s crew was the best paid and most sophisticated in the country. Thomas Morley composed his influential First Booke of Consort Leſſons (1599) with London’s waits in mind, praising them as
excellent and expert Muſitiansin his dedicatory epistle (Morley sig. A2r).
Despite the prominence of music in pageant performances, it is very rare for pageant
books to include musical notation. Although there was increasing demand for musical
notation beginning in the early seventeenth century, the trade in printed music remained
a relatively specialized venture, and pageant records (like printed drama) generally
do not expend the additional effort and cost necessary to provide specific tunes.7 Of all of the Lord Mayor’s Shows for which printed pamphlets survive, only two include musical notation: Middleton’s The Triumphs of Truth and Squire’s Tes Irenes Trophæa (see above). In both of these examples, the music consists of two straightforward melodic lines:
one for the primary melody, with the words laid below the corresponding notes, and
the other for the
bassusor viol accompaniment. Both are relatively simple tunes that would enable amateurs to reproduce pageant music in household contexts: the aim is not to cater to refined musicians but to provide a rough semblance of the melody.
Although they generally lack musical notation, pageant pamphlets frequently make reference
to music in verse and prose, providing lyrics for songs and outlining the ideals of
musical harmony as they relate to the pageant’s symbolic program. Some poets, notably
Thomas Dekker, are concerned not only with ideas or metaphors of music, but with embodied experiences
of sound. For example, Dekker’s London’s Tempe (1629), a mayoral show sponsored by the Ironmongers’ Company, comes to a climax in a clamorous, yet
concordantand rhythmical,
Lemnian Forge:
A fire is ſeene in the Forge, Bellowes blowing, ſome filing, ſome at other workes; Thunder and Lightning on occaſion. As the Smiths are at worke, they ſing in praiſe of Iron, the Anuile and Hammer: by the concor- dant ſtrokes and ſoundes of which, Tuballecayne be- came the firſt inuentor of Muſicke.
(Dekker sig. B2r)
Alluding to the Book of Genesis, where Tubal-cain is
an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron(Gen. 4:22), Dekker invites his audience to hear music in the
stroakes and soundesof urban manufacturing.
In the song that follows, we hear from the smiths directly:
The Song.Braue Iron! Braue Hammer! from your sound,The Art of Musicke has her Ground,On the Anuile, Thou keep’st Time,Thy Knick-a-knock is a smithes Best Chyme,Yet Thwick a-Thwack,Thwick, Thwac a-Thwac-Thwac,Make our Brawny sinewes Crack,Then Pit a-pat-pat, pit a-pat-pat,Till thickest barres be beaten flat.
(Dekker sig. B2v)
The four-stress couplets and the onomatopoetic refrain of the song prompt an audience
to sing, stamp, or shout along. Indeed, the onomatopoeia is so thick that we cannot
help but privilege the immediate, sensory environs of its utterance. The
Thwick a-Thwacks and
knick-a-knocks are indexical signifiers: they draw our attention to what the smiths call the
Ground(
The Art of Musicke has her Ground). In the early modern period, ground denotes a recurring melodic line, usually in the bass, that underlies variation in upper parts. In the smiths’ song, our attention is directed to this background: the song’s acoustic surroundings come to be at the center of its musical meaning and experience. Thus, even though the notation for this song is not extant, we can gather a visceral sense of its music.
¶Crowds
However brilliant pageant music strove to be, it would have had difficulty competing
with the sounds of uproarious crowds. Orazio Busino describes the bustling scene at the Lord Mayor’s Show of 1617 as follows:
Looking below us onto the street we saw a huge mass of people, surging like the sea, moving here and there in search of places to watch or rest—which proved impossible because of the constant press of newcomers. It was a chaotic mixture. (Busino 1266)
Busino perceives this crowd as volatile not least because of the heterogeneity of social
classes and the imposing presence of London’s burgeoning masses. Pageant crowds were a
chaotic mixturebecause they brought London’s underclasses face-to-face with its tradesmen, monied citizens, livery company officials, aristocrats, and even royalty. Although the cheering, clapping, cursing, and shouting of these crowds threatened to make poets’ verses inaudible, it was important to the success of a pageant’s political goals. Crowds legitimized the power of the dignitaries being celebrated, reinforcing the sense that the pageant was a monumental occasion and providing an opportunity to disseminate propaganda. Yet crowds could also be unsettling and even dangerous, placing officials amidst an unruly public that might be uninterested in the official subject of the pageant or resentful of those in power.8
Busino witnessed the 1617 Lord Mayor’s Show from the relative safety and privilege of an upper-story building,
yet he emphasizes the discomfort that the
seethingpopulace could inspire:
The insolence of the crowd is extreme. They swing up onto the back of carriages, and if one of the drivers turns on them with his whip, they jump to the ground and hurl stinking mud at him Gap in transcription. Reason: Editorial omission for reasons of length or relevance. Use only in quotations in born-digital documents.[…] everything resolves itself with kicks and punches and muddy faces. A perpetual shower of firecrackers rained from the windows onto the seething crowd, popping mischievously under everyone’s clothes and faces and between their legs. (1266)
If Busino’s image of firecrackers raining onto the crowd is supposed to be festive, it is accompanied
by concern about management and control:
Some men masked as wild giants strode through the crowd with wheels and fireballs, hurling sparks here and there at the bodies and faces of the multitude, but to no avail at making a wide and clear route for the procession. (1268)
The Pomeranian traveler Lupold von Wedel confirms that policing London’s crowds had long been a problem, noting in his diary that the 1584 Lord Mayor’s Show was preceded by
fire-engines ornamented with garlands, out of which they throw water on the crowd, forcing it to give way, for the streets are quite filled with people(von Wedel 225).
Busino and von Wedel share a wry and even playful tone, but what they are describing is
organized violence.9 London’s governing authorities were willing to turn firecrackers and even early modern water
cannons on the crowds—the same crowds that they had spent vast amounts of money to
attract. Firecrackers and green men became an expected part of the spectacle, an institutionalized
form of crowd control built into the genre itself. Crowds may have been instrumental
to the pomp and legitimacy of the dignitaries honored in an outdoor pageant, but they
were also threatening and unpredictable.
Due in significant part to their distaste for public crowds, Stuart monarchs came
to withdraw support for outdoor pageantry.10 James I gained a reputation for scorning the masses and removing himself from their sight;
as early as his coronation pageant in 1604, the king was understood to be no champion of what Gilbert Dugdale calls the
wylie Multitude(Dugdale sig. B1v). In his account of the The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James, Dugdale acts as something of an apologist for the king, repeatedly emphasizing
the rudenes of the Multitude, who regardles of time [place or] perſon will be ſo troubleſome(Dugdale sig. B2r). Justifying James’s avoidance of the crowds on the basis of their dangerous
pre[ss]ing,Dugdale characterizes them as a
ſtro[n]g ſtream of people violently run[n]ing in the midſt [of the guildmen lining the streets],inclined
with ſuch hurly burly, to run vp and downe with ſuch vnreuerent raſhnes(Dugdale sig. B3v, B1v).
Over the course of the early seventeenth century, monarchal spectacles became increasingly
insular, focusing less on outdoor pageantry and more on the indoor masque. The masque, pioneered by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones, was a carefully controlled theatrical experience involving the participation of
a learned, courtly audience. Like outdoor pageants, masques were commemorated in printed records that allowed their symbolic agendas to be dispersed
and elucidated far beyond the performance itself. Yet masques were removed from unstable crowds, performed at the Palace of Whitehall, the Inns of Court, and other spaces of privilege. Pageantry, on the contrary, continued to be defined
by the crowds that streamed into the streets, not simply to honor the dignitaries
of the moment but to enjoy a holiday from work and celebrate with other loud and raucous
Londoners.
¶Noise
As we have seen, pageants were extraordinarily noisy enterprises. The flowery verses
of allegorical personages, the sweet music of instruments and voices, and the yells
and cheers of boisterous crowds competed not only with each other but with London’s everyday sounds, from the cries of street vendors selling their wares to the creaking
of wagon wheels and the neighing of horses. On top of all of this, and epitomizing
the experience of pageantry for many onlookers, were the fireworks and gunfire that
boomed above the Thames and sparkled in the faces of the crowds.
Pageant designers typically employed greenmen to discharge fireworks and gun salutes,
which were especially prominent during the sea spectacles that preceded the processionals through London. Smaller firecrackers called squibs
were common in the streets as well; we have already seen Busino recount that a
perpetual shower of firecrackers rained from the windowsand
wild giants strode through the crowd with wheels and fireballs(Busino 1266, 1268). Recollections of gunfire are a typical feature of diarists’ accounts of pageants, as in the Russian ambassador Aleksei Ziuzin’s description of Middleton’s The Triumphs of Truth:
And the King’s trumpeters trumpeted, and they beat the drums and they played on litavra [kettle drums] and there were all sorts of various instruments. And they fired a great salute from the ship in which the Lord Mayor sailed and from other ships which were there and from big boats and from the City wall. And from all the small boats there was a great shooting of muskets. (978)
Fireworks also feature prominently in literary allusions to pageantry, as in William Fennor’s verse satire Cornu-copiae, Pasquils night-cap (1612):
When as the Pageants through Chepe-ſide are carried,What multitudes of people thither ſway,Thruſting ſo hard, that many haue miſcarried.If then you marke when as the fire-workes flye,And Elephants and Vnicornes paſſe by,How mighty and tumultuous is that preſſe.
(Fennor sig. H1r)
In both of these examples, fireworks do not stand alone as acoustic events; instead,
they mark a noisy climax in the broader experience of pageantry.
As with music, fireworks also work their way into pageant records, often as allusions
designed to recall the majesty of the pageant day and occasionally as a more elaborate
dimension of a pageant’s allegorical agenda. In Dekker’s 1612 Lord Mayor’s Show Troia-Nova Triumphans, for example, the villainous personage Envy, who is associated with noisy disorder,
incorporates fireworks into the center of the fictional narrative. Seeking to halt
the mayoral procession, Envy instructs her deputies Riot and Calumny to produce an
explosion of infernal noise:
ADders ſhoote, hyſſe ſpeckled Snakes Gap in transcription. Reason: Editorial omission for reasons of length or relevance. Use only in quotations in born-digital documents.[…]Vomit ſulphure to confound her,Fiendes and Furies (that dwell vnder)Lift hell gates from their hindges: comeYou clouen-foote-broode of Barrathrum,Stop, ſtay her, fright her, with your ſhreekes,And put freſh bloud in Enuies cheekes.
(Dekker sig. B4v)
At this point everyone in Envy’s faction chants or shouts
Shoote, Shoote, &c.,and Dekker notes in a stage direction of sorts that these lines coincide with literal fireworks:
Either during this ſpeech, or elſe when it is done, certaine Rockets flye vp into the aire; The Throne of Vertue paſſing on ſtill, neuer ſtaying, but ſpeaking ſtillthoſe her two laſt lines, albeit, ſhee bee out of thecrying ſtill, ſhoote, ſhoote.
(Dekker sig. C1r)
The scene is all the more suggestive because it is impossible to distinguish the sounds
of misrule and disruption from those of celebration. Envy and her
Fort of Furiescontinue to parley with Virtue throughout the pageant, until, finally,
thoſe twelue that ride armed diſcharge their Piſtols, at which Enuy, and the reſt, vaniſh, and are ſeene no more(Dekker sig. C4r)—vanquished by the same disorderly tools with which they are associated.
One implication of Dekker’s emphasis on fireworks in Troia-Nova Triumphans is that his printed record becomes open to its environment, providing a sounding
board for the sensory environs of the pageant day. Something similar happens in the
printed pamphlet for Dekker’s London’s Tempe, where the
concordant stroakesof the smiths’ banging melds with the drumming in and around the pageant floats, and the
Thunder and Lightningdepicted in the fictional Lemnian Forge cannot be distinguished from the fireworks and gunfire set off throughout the Lord Mayor’s Day. By emphasizing the explosive force of rockets, pistols, shrieks, and thunderous banging, Dekker’s pageants draw ambient noise into the core of their symbolic design, incorporating the atmosphere surrounding the text into its allegorical program.
¶Conclusion
If silence is a process of filtering out what we do not wish not to hear, noise is
what enters our ears nevertheless, unwelcome and uninvited. Theorists including R. Murray Schafer and Jacques Attali define noise as unwanted sound, and the term was sometimes used in this way during
the early modern period as well, as in the
strange, hollow, and confused noisethat disrupts Prospero’s nuptial entertainment in The Tempest (Shakespeare 4.1.138).11 When noise is conceived in this way, the question becomes who wants a particular sound and who does not—Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano hope to turn
noises, / Sounds and sweet airsto the advantage of their rebellion (Shakespeare 3.2.135-36), and Prospero capitalizes on the noisy confusion of the storm at the outset of the play. What is noise to one character is music to another.
Whether sound is wanted is a matter of perspective, that is, and defining what counts
as noise could be a powerful act in itself. Poets would be wary of sounds that did
not line up with their symbolic goals or that distracted from the exaltation of their
patrons. In Dekker’s London’s Tempe, the
stroakes and soundesof the smiths in are portrayed as
concordant,beautiful music, while in Middleton’s Civitatis Amor, the
over-greedy noiseof the rambunctious crowd is portrayed as an obstacle to the majesty of Prince Charles. Sound could be a tool to bring out the glory of the dignitary being honored, or it could challenge the very subject of a pageant, undermining the propaganda it wished to convey.
Given the pressures involved in describing and defining varying types of noise, many
of the sounds of pageantry would not have been recorded at all. Sounds thought by
the pageant poet to be irrelevant or extraneous, such as the jingling of morris dancers’
bells or the hawking of balladmongers, might not be considered worthy of record. Embarrassing
sounds—the giggling of impertinent onlookers, perhaps—might have been excised from
written records or never have made it to the page in the first place. Quieter sounds
such as the strumming of lutes or the whispering of courtiers might have been heard
by too few people to be likely to survive. Conjuring up the soundscape on pageant day requires extrapolating from the hints that survive: since we know
from livery company account books that sweetmeats were frequently purchased in advance
of pageants, for example, we can assume that, underneath so many louder noises, they
made a crunching sound in the mouths of spectators.
Since we can never know exactly what goes unacknowledged in surviving descriptions
and records, hearing the sounds of pageantry requires imagination. The same could
be said of other historical phenomena; manuscripts, printed books, and other materials
from the past are constantly subject to destruction, forgetfulness, and misunderstanding.
Before the advent of audio recording technologies, however, sound was especially vulnerable
to ephemerality and loss. This makes listening to historical soundscapes a creative act: grounded in detail and attentive to context, but always dependent
upon an open mind and an open ear.
Notes
- For overall accounts of London’s outdoor pageantry during the early modern period, see Bergeron, especially his discussion of the stagecraft or
body
of the shows, 238-62; and Manley, 212-93. On Lord Mayor’s Shows, see Hill, especially her analysis of eyewitness accounts of the shows, 118-213. On Elizabethan progresses, see Leahy, especially his discussion of thecommon audience,
53-100. (ST)↑ - The Lord Mayor in 1617 was George Bolles. (JT)↑
- Other authors include Anthony Munday, George Peele, John Webster, and John Taylor. (ST)↑
- Whereas the original costs were 645 pounds, 8 shillings, and 4 pence, the costs for reviving the pageant (which included eight earthen pans and a load of coals to dry the floats) came to 64 pounds, 14 shillings, and 1 penny (Robertson and Gordon 69-70). (ST)↑
- There were four printed accounts of The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James, which vary significantly. The edition cited here
provides an ideal reconstruction, rather than an account of what anyone saw or heard on 15 March 1604
(Dekker, Harrison, Jonson, and Middleton 219). (ST)↑ - For example, the account books for the Ironmongers, the livery company that commissioned the 1618 Lord Mayor’s Show Sidero-Thriambos, indicate a payment of four pounds
for kettel drum[m]es with 4 trumpeters on horsebacke
(Robertson and Gordon 96). (ST)↑ - On the history of monopolies over music printing in Elizabethan and early Stuart England, see Smith. (ST)↑
- On London’s crowds and their role in civic pageantry, see Munro, 51-74. (ST)↑
- On violence and injury in processional drama, see Northway. (ST)↑
- On the decline of monarchical progresses during the Stuart era, including Charles I’s abrupt withdrawal of support for his coronation entry through London, see Bergeron, 67-68, 76, and 110-12. (ST)↑
- On noise as disruption and even violence, see Schafer, 181-202 and Attali, 26-27. Note that
noise
was an unstable term in the early modern period: as the OED suggests, the term could denotesound of any kind,
including apleasant or melodious sound,
as in Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queene:there was an heauenly noise / Heard sownd through all the Pallace pleasantly, / Like as it had bene many an Angels voice
(Spenser I.ii.39). Note also that in communication theory,noise
refers to anything that disrupts or interferes with the transmission of information from sender to receiver. (ST)↑ - MoEML has a blind peer review policy. We ask reviewers if they are willing to have their names listed once the article is published. (JJ)↑
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Programmer, 2018-present. Junior Programmer, 2015-2017. Research Assistant, 2014-2017. Joey Takeda was a graduate student at the University of British Columbia in the Department of English (Science and Technology research stream). He completed his BA honours in English (with a minor in Women’s Studies) at the University of Victoria in 2016. His primary research interests included diasporic and indigenous Canadian and American literature, critical theory, cultural studies, and the digital humanities.Roles played in the project
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Janelle Jenstad is Associate Professor of English at the University of Victoria, Director of The Map of Early Modern London, and PI of Linked Early Modern Drama Online. She has taught at Queen’s University, the Summer Academy at the Stratford Festival, the University of Windsor, and the University of Victoria. With Jennifer Roberts-Smith and Mark Kaethler, she co-edited Shakespeare’s Language in Digital Media (Routledge). She has prepared a documentary edition of John Stow’s A Survey of London (1598 text) for MoEML and is currently editing The Merchant of Venice (with Stephen Wittek) and Heywood’s 2 If You Know Not Me You Know Nobody for DRE. Her articles have appeared in Digital Humanities Quarterly, Renaissance and Reformation,Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, Early Modern Literary Studies, Elizabethan Theatre, Shakespeare Bulletin: A Journal of Performance Criticism, and The Silver Society Journal. Her book chapters have appeared (or will appear) in Institutional Culture in Early Modern Society (Brill, 2004), Shakespeare, Language and the Stage, The Fifth Wall: Approaches to Shakespeare from Criticism, Performance and Theatre Studies (Arden/Thomson Learning, 2005), Approaches to Teaching Othello (Modern Language Association, 2005), Performing Maternity in Early Modern England (Ashgate, 2007), New Directions in the Geohumanities: Art, Text, and History at the Edge of Place (Routledge, 2011), Early Modern Studies and the Digital Turn (Iter, 2016), Teaching Early Modern English Literature from the Archives (MLA, 2015), Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers (Indiana, 2016), Making Things and Drawing Boundaries (Minnesota, 2017), and Rethinking Shakespeare’s Source Study: Audiences, Authors, and Digital Technologies (Routledge, 2018).Roles played in the project
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Jenstad, Janelle.
Building a Gazetteer for Early Modern London, 1550-1650.
Placing Names. Ed. Merrick Lex Berman, Ruth Mostern, and Humphrey Southall. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana UP, 2016. 129-145. -
Jenstad, Janelle.
The Burse and the Merchant’s Purse: Coin, Credit, and the Nation in Heywood’s 2 If You Know Not Me You Know Nobody.
The Elizabethan Theatre XV. Ed. C.E. McGee and A.L. Magnusson. Toronto: P.D. Meany, 2002. 181–202. Print. -
Jenstad, Janelle.
Early Modern Literary Studies 8.2 (2002): 5.1–26..The City Cannot Hold You
: Social Conversion in the Goldsmith’s Shop. -
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The Silver Society Journal 10 (1998): 40–43.The Gouldesmythes Storehowse
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Lying-in Like a Countess: The Lisle Letters, the Cecil Family, and A Chaste Maid in Cheapside.
Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 34 (2004): 373–403. doi:10.1215/10829636–34–2–373. -
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Public Glory, Private Gilt: The Goldsmiths’ Company and the Spectacle of Punishment.
Institutional Culture in Early Modern Society. Ed. Anne Goldgar and Robert Frost. Leiden: Brill, 2004. 191–217. Print. -
Jenstad, Janelle.
Smock Secrets: Birth and Women’s Mysteries on the Early Modern Stage.
Performing Maternity in Early Modern England. Ed. Katherine Moncrief and Kathryn McPherson. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. 87–99. Print. -
Jenstad, Janelle.
Using Early Modern Maps in Literary Studies: Views and Caveats from London.
GeoHumanities: Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place. Ed. Michael Dear, James Ketchum, Sarah Luria, and Doug Richardson. London: Routledge, 2011. Print. -
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Versioning John Stow’s A Survey of London, or, What’s New in 1618 and 1633?.
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Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. Ed. Janelle Jenstad. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Stow, John. A SVRVAY OF LONDON. Contayning the Originall, Antiquity, Increase, Moderne estate, and description of that Citie, written in the yeare 1598. by Iohn Stow Citizen of London. Also an Apologie (or defence) against the opinion of some men, concerning that Citie, the greatnesse thereof. With an Appendix, containing in Latine, Libellum de situ & nobilitate Londini: written by William Fitzstephen, in the raigne of Henry the second. Ed. Janelle Jenstad and the MoEML Team. MoEML. Transcribed. Web.
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Scott Trudell
ST
Scott A. Trudell is Assistant Professor of English at the University of Maryland, College Park, where his research and teaching focus on early modern literature, media theory and music. In addition to his current book project about song and mediation from Sidney and Shakespeare to Jonson and Milton, he has research interests in gender studies, digital humanities, pageantry and itinerant theatricality. His work has been published in Shakespeare Quarterly, Studies in Philology and edited collections. See Trudell’s profile at the University of Maryland and his professional website.Roles played in the project
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Tracey Hill
Dr. Tracey Hill is a Professor of Early Modern Literature and Culture at Bath Spa University. Her specialism is in the literature and history of early modern London. She is the author of two books: Anthony Munday and Civic Culture (Manchester UP, 2004), and Pageantry and Power: A Cultural History of the Early Modern lord mayor’s Shows, 1585–1639 (Manchester UP, 2010). She has also published a number of articles on Munday’s prose works, on The Booke of Sir Thomas More, and on late Elizabethan history plays.Roles played in the project
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Hill, Tracey. Anthony Munday and Civic Culture: Theatre, History and Power in Early Modern London, 1580–1633. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2004. Print.
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Hill, Tracey. Pageantry and Power: A cultural history of the early modern Lord Mayor’s Show 1585–1639. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2013. Print.
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Hill, Tracy.
Owners and Collectors of the Printed Books of the Early Modern Lord Mayors’ Shows.
Library and Information History 30.3 (2013): 151–171. doi:10.1179/1758348914Z.00000000061
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Martin D. Holmes
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Programmer at the University of Victoria Humanities Computing and Media Centre (HCMC). Martin ported the MOL project from its original PHP incarnation to a pure eXist database implementation in the fall of 2011. Since then, he has been lead programmer on the project and has also been responsible for maintaining the project schemas. He was a co-applicant on MoEML’s 2012 SSHRC Insight Grant.Roles played in the project
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Sir George Bolles
Sir George Bolles Sheriff Mayor
(d. 1 September 1621)Sheriff of London 1608-1609. Mayor 1617-1618. Member of the Grocers’ Company. Knighted on 31 May 1618.Sir George Bolles is mentioned in the following documents:
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Brutus of Troy
Brutus King of Great Britain
King of Britain and founder of London. Husband of Innogen. Father of Albanact, Camber, and Locrine. Son of Aeneas. Appears in Geoffrey of Monouth’s History of the Kings of Britain.Brutus of Troy is mentioned in the following documents:
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Busino, Orazio.
Orazio Busino’s Eyewitness Account of The Triumphs of Honour and Industry.
Translated. Kate D. Levin. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 1264–70.
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Charles II
Charles This numeral is a Roman numeral. The Arabic equivalent is 2II King of England King of Scotland King of Ireland
(b. 1630, d. 1685)King of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1660-1665.Charles II is mentioned in the following documents:
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Geoffrey Chaucer
(b. 1340, d. 1400)Poet and administrator. Author of The Canterbury Tales. Buried at Westminster Abbey.Geoffrey Chaucer is mentioned in the following documents:
Geoffrey Chaucer authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Ed. F.N. Robinson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957. Remediated by Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse.
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Thomas Dekker is mentioned in the following documents:
Thomas Dekker authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Bevington, David. Introduction.
The Shoemaker’s Holiday.
By Thomas Dekker. English Renaissance Drama: A Norton Anthology. Ed. David Bevington, Lars Engle, Katharine Eisaman Maus, and Eric Rasmussen. New York: Norton, 2002. 483–487. Print. -
Dekker, Thomas. Britannia’s Honor.
The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker.
Vol. 4. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1961. Print. -
Dekker, Thomas. The Dead Tearme. Or Westminsters Complaint for long Vacations and short Termes. Written in Manner of a Dialogue betweene the two Cityes London and Westminster. 1608. The Non-Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker. Ed. Rev. Alexander B. Grosart. 5 vols. 1885. Reprint. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. 4.1–84.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Gull’s Horn-Book: Or, Fashions to Please All Sorts of Gulls. Thomas Dekker: The Wonderful Year, The Gull’s Horn-Book, Penny-Wise, Pound-Foolish, English Villainies Discovered by Lantern and Candelight, and Selected Writings. Ed. E.D. Pendry. London: Edward Arnold, 1967. 64–109. The Stratford-upon-Avon Library 4.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Gul’s Horne-booke. London: [Nicholas Okes] for R. S[ergier?], 1609. Rpt. EEBO. Web.
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Dekker, Thomas. If it be not good, the Diuel is in it A nevv play, as it hath bin lately acted, vvith great applause, by the Queenes Maiesties Seruants: at the Red Bull. London: Printed by Thomas Creede for John Trundle, 1612. STC 6507. EEBO.
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Dekker, Thomas. Lantern and Candlelight. 1608. Ed. Viviana Comensoli. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2007. Publications of the Barnabe Riche Society.
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Dekker, Thomas. Londons Tempe, or The Feild of Happines. London: Nicholas Okes, 1629. STC 6509. DEEP 736. Greg 421a. Copy: British Library; Shelfmark: C.34.g.11.
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Dekker, Thomas. Londons Tempe, or The Feild of Happines. London: Nicholas Okes, 1629. STC 6509. DEEP 736. Greg 421a. Copy: Huntington Library; Shelfmark: Rare Books 59055.
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Dekker, Thomas. Londons Tempe, or The Feild of Happines. London: Nicholas Okes, 1629. STC 6509. DEEP 736. Greg 421a. Copy: National Library of Scotland; Shelfmark: Bute.143.
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Dekker, Thomas. London’s Tempe. The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1961. Print.
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Dekker, Thomas. The magnificent entertainment giuen to King James, Queene Anne his wife, and Henry Frederick the Prince, upon the day of his Majesties triumphant passage (from the Tower) through his honourable citie (and chamber) of London, being the 15. of March. 1603. As well by the English as by the strangers: with the speeches and songes, deliuered in the severall pageants. London: Printed by Thomas Creede for Thomas Man the younger, 1604. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Magnificent Entertainment: Giuen to King James, Queene Anne his wife, and Henry Frederick the Prince, ypon the day of his Majesties Triumphant Passage (from the Tower) through his Honourable Citie (and Chamber) of London being the 15. Of March. 1603. London: T. Man, 1604. Treasures in full: Renaissance Festival Books. British Library. Web. Open.
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Dekker, Thomas? The Owles almanacke prognosticating many strange accidents which shall happen to this kingdome of Great Britaine this yeere, 1618 : calculated as well for the meridian mirth of London, as any other part of Great Britaine : found in an Iuy-bush written in old characters / and now published in English by the painefull labours of Mr. Iocundary Merry-braines. London, 1618. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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Dekker, Thomas. Penny-wise pound foolish or, a Bristow diamond, set in two rings, and both crack’d Profitable for married men, pleasant for young men, and a rare example for all good women. London, 1631. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Second Part of the Honest Whore, with the Humors of the Patient Man, the Impatient Wife: the Honest Whore, perswaded by strong Arguments to turne Curtizan againe: her braue refuting those Arguments. London: Printed by Elizabeth All-de for Nathaniel Butter, 1630. STC 6506. EEBO.
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Dekker, Thomas. The seuen deadly sinnes of London drawne in seuen seuerall coaches, through the seuen seuerall gates of the citie bringing the plague with them. London, 1606. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Shoemaker’s Holiday. Ed. R.L. Smallwood and Stanley Wells. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1979. The Revels Plays.
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Dekker, Thomas. The Shomakers Holiday: or, The Gentle Craft With the Humorous Life of Simon Eyre, Shoomaker, and Lord Maior of London. London, 1600. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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Dekker, Thomas, Stephen Harrison, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Middleton. The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James through the City of London, 15 March 1604, with the Arches of Triumph. Ed. R. Malcolm Smuts. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 219–79.
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Dekker, Thomas. Troia-Noua Triumphans. London: Nicholas Okes, 1612. STC 6530. DEEP 578. Greg 302a. Copy: Chapin Library; Shelfmark: 01WIL_ALMA.
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Dekker, Thomas. Westward Ho! The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker. Vol. 2. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1964.
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Middleton, Thomas, and Thomas Dekker. The Roaring Girl. Ed. Paul A. Mulholland. Revels Plays. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1987. Print.
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Munday, Anthony, Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, and William Shakespeare. Sir Thomas More. Ed. Vittorio Gabrieli and Giorgio Melchiori. Revels Plays. Manchester; New York: Manchester UP, 1990. Print.
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Smith, Peter J.
Glossary.
The Shoemakers’ Holiday. By Thomas Dekker. London: Nick Hern, 2004. 108–110. Print.
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Gilbert Dugdale
(fl. 1604)Gilbert Dugdale is mentioned in the following documents:
Gilbert Dugdale authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Dugdale, Gilbert. The time triumphant declaring in briefe, the arival of our soveraigne liedge Lord, King James into England, his coronation at Westminster: together with his late royal progresse, from the Towre of London throúgh the Cittie, to his Highnes manor of White Hall. Shewing also, the varieties & rarieties of al the sundry trophies or pageants, erected . . . With a rehearsall of the King and Queenes late comming to the Exchaunge in London. London, 1604. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr.
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William Fennor is mentioned in the following documents:
William Fennor authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Fennor, William. Cornu-copiae, Pasquils night-cap. London, 1612. STC 10782.5. Web. EEBO. Subscr. EEBO.
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Fennor, William. The Counter’s Commonwealth. 1617. The Elizabethan Underworld. Ed. A.V. Judges. 1930. Reprint. New York: Octagon, 1965. 423–87.
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Neptune is mentioned in the following documents:
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Envy
Personification of envy. Appears as an allegorical character in mayoral shows.Envy is mentioned in the following documents:
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George Gascoigne is mentioned in the following documents:
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Thomas Heywood is mentioned in the following documents:
Thomas Heywood authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Heywood, Thomas. The Captives; or, The Lost Recovered. Ed. Alexander Corbin Judson. New Haven: Yale UP, 1921. Print.
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Heywood, Thomas. The First and Second Parts of King Edward IV. Ed. Richard Rowland. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2005. The Revels Plays.
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Heywood, Thomas. The Second Part of, If you know not me, you know no bodie. VVith the building of the Royall Exchange: And the Famous Victorie of Queene Elizabeth, in the Yeare 1588. London, 1606. STC 13336. EEBO. Web. Subscr.
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Munday, Anthony, Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, and William Shakespeare. Sir Thomas More. Ed. Vittorio Gabrieli and Giorgio Melchiori. Revels Plays. Manchester; New York: Manchester UP, 1990. Print.
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Thomas Heywood Heywood’s Dramatic Works. 6 vols. Ed. W.J. Alexander. London: John Pearson, 1874. Print.
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James VI and I
James This numeral is a Roman numeral. The Arabic equivalent is 6VI This numeral is a Roman numeral. The Arabic equivalent is 1I King of Scotland King of England King of Ireland
(b. 1566, d. 1625)James VI and I is mentioned in the following documents:
James VI and I authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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James VI and I. Letters of King James VI and I. Ed. G.P.V. Akrigg. Berkeley: U of California P, 1984. Print.
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Rhodes, Neill, Jennifer Richards, and Joseph Marshall, eds. King James VI and I: Selected Writings. By James VI and I. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004.
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Inigo Jones is mentioned in the following documents:
Inigo Jones authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Jones, Inigo.
Design for the new
1610s. RIBA 12957. Open.Italyan
gate, Arundel House, Strand, London.
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Ben Jonson is mentioned in the following documents:
Ben Jonson authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Chapman, George, Ben Jonson, and John Marston. Eastward Ho! Ed. R.W. Van Fossen. New York: Manchester UP, 1999. Print.
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Dekker, Thomas, Stephen Harrison, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Middleton. The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James through the City of London, 15 March 1604, with the Arches of Triumph. Ed. R. Malcolm Smuts. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 219–79.
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Gifford, William, ed. The Works of Ben Jonson. By Ben Jonson. Vol. 1. London: Nichol, 1816. Remediated by Internet Archive.
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Jonson, Ben. The Alchemist. London: New Mermaids, 1991. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. Bartholomew Fair. Ed. E.A. Horsman. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1979. Revels Plays. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. Bartholomew Fair. Ed. Suzanne Gossett, based on The Revels Plays edition ed. E.A. Horsman. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2000. Revels Student Editions. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. B. Ion: his part of King Iames his royall and magnificent entertainement through his honorable cittie of London, Thurseday the 15. of March. 1603 so much as was presented in the first and last of their triumphall arch’s. London, 1604. STC 14756. EEBO.
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Jonson, Ben. The Complete Poetry of Ben Jonson. Ed. William B. Hunter. Stuart Edtions. New York: New YorkUP, 1963.
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Jonson, Ben. The Devil is an Ass. Ed. Peter Happé. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 1996. Revels Plays. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. Epicene. Ed. Richard Dutton. Revels Plays. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2004. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. Every Man Out of His Humour. Ed. Helen Ostovich. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2001. Print.
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Jonson, Ben. The First, of Blacknesse, Personated at the Court, at White-hall, on the Twelfth Night, 1605. The Characters of Two Royall Masques: The One of Blacknesse, the Other of Beautie. Personated by the Most Magnificent of Queenes Anne Queene of Great Britaine, &c. with her Honorable Ladyes, 1605 and 1608 at White-hall. London : For Thomas Thorp, and are to be Sold at the Signe of the Tigers Head in Paules Church-yard, 1608. Sig. A3r-C2r. STC 14761. Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Jonson, Ben. Oberon, The Faery Prince. The Workes of Benjamin Jonson. Vol. 1. London: Will Stansby, 1616. Sig. 4N2r-2N6r. Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Jonson, Ben. The Staple of Newes. The Works. Vol. 2. London: Printed by I.B. for Robert Allot, 1631. Sig. 2A1r-2J2v. Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Jonson, Ben. The Staple of News. Ed. Anthony Parr. Manchester; New York: Manchester UP, 1999. Revels Plays. Print.
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Jonson, Ben.
To Penshurst.
The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt, Carol T. Christ, Alfred David, Barbara K. Lewalski, Lawrence Lipking, George M. Logan, Deidre Shauna Lynch, Katharine Eisaman Maus, James Noggle, Jahan Ramazani, Catherine Robson, James Simpson, Jon Stallworthy, Jack Stillinger, and M. H. Abrams. 9th ed. Vol. B. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. 1547. -
Jonson, Ben. The vvorkes of Beniamin Ionson. Containing these playes, viz. 1 Bartholomew Fayre. 2 The staple of newes. 3 The Divell is an asse. London, 1641. EEBO. Reprint. Subscr. STC 14754.
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London is mentioned in the following documents:
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Thomas Middleton is mentioned in the following documents:
Thomas Middleton authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Brissenden, Alan.
Introduction.
A Chaste Maid in Cheapside. By Thomas Middleton. 2nd ed. New Mermaids. London: A&C Black; New York: Norton, 2002. xi–xxxv. Print. -
Dekker, Thomas, Stephen Harrison, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Middleton. The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James through the City of London, 15 March 1604, with the Arches of Triumph. Ed. R. Malcolm Smuts. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 219–79.
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Middleton, Thomas, and Thomas Dekker. The Roaring Girl. Ed. Paul A. Mulholland. Revels Plays. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1987. Print.
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Middleton, Thomas. A Chaste Maid in Cheapside. Ed. Alan Brissenden. 2nd ed. New Mermaids. London: Benn, 2002.
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Middleton, Thomas. Civitatis Amor. Ed. David Bergeron. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 1202–8.
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Honour and Industry. London: Printed by Nicholas Okes, 1617. STC 17899. Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Integrity. Ed. David Bergeron. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 1766–1771.
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Love and Antiquity. London: Printed by Nicholas Okes, 1619. STC 17902. Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Truth. London, 1613. Ed. David M. Bergeron. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Clarendon, 2007. 968–76.
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Truth. London, 1613. STC 17903. Reprint. EEBO. Web.[Differs from STC 17904 in that it does not contain the additional entertainment.]
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Middleton, Thomas. The Triumphs of Truth. London, 1613. STC 17904. Reprint. EEBO. Web. [Differs from STC 17903 in that it contains an additional entertainment celebrating Hugh Middleton’s New River project, known as the Entertainment at Amwell Head.]
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Middleton, Thomas. The Works of Thomas Middleton, now First Collected with Some Account of the Author and notes by The Reverend Alexander Dyce. Ed. Alexander Dyce. London: E. Lumley, 1840. Print.
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Taylor, Gary, and John Lavagnino, eds. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. By Thomas Middleton. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. The Oxford Middleton. Print.
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Thomas Morley
(b. 1556, d. in or after 1602)Composer. Not to be confused with Sir Thomas Morley or Thomas Morley.Thomas Morley is mentioned in the following documents:
Thomas Morley authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Anthony Munday
(bap. 1560, d. 1633)Playwright, actor, pageant poet, translator, and writer. Possible member of the Drapers’ Company or Merchant Taylors’ Company.Anthony Munday is mentioned in the following documents:
Anthony Munday authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Anthony Munday. The Triumphs of Re-United Britannia. Arthur F. Kinney. Renaissance Drama: An Anthology of Plays and Entertainments. 2nd ed. Toronto: Wiley, 2005.
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Munday, Anthony. Camp-Bell: or the Ironmongers Faire Feild. London: Edward Allde, 1609. DEEP406. STC 18279.
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Munday, Anthony. Chruſo-thriambos. The Triumphes of Golde. London, 1611. STC 18267.5. Trinity College, U of Cambridge copy Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Munday, Anthony, Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, and William Shakespeare. Sir Thomas More. Ed. Vittorio Gabrieli and Giorgio Melchiori. Revels Plays. Manchester; New York: Manchester UP, 1990. Print.
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Munday, Anthony. Metropolis Coronata, The Trivmphes of Ancient Drapery. London: George Purslowe, 1615. DEEP 630. STC 18275. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery copy filmed by EEBO.
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Munday, Anthony. The Trivmphs of the Golden Fleece. London: T[homas] S[nodham], 1623. STC 18280. British Library copy filmed by EEBO.
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Stow, John, Anthony Munday, and Henry Holland. THE SVRVAY of LONDON: Containing, The Originall, Antiquitie, Encrease, and more Moderne Estate of the sayd Famous Citie. As also, the Rule and Gouernment thereof (both Ecclesiasticall and Temporall) from time to time. With a briefe Relation of all the memorable Monuments, and other especiall Obseruations, both in and about the same CITIE. Written in the yeere 1598. by Iohn Stow, Citizen of London. Since then, continued, corrected and much enlarged, with many rare and worthy Notes, both of Venerable Antiquity, and later memorie; such, as were neuer published before this present yeere 1618. London: George Purslowe, 1618. STC 23344. Yale University Library copy Reprint. EEBO. Web.
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Stow, John, Anthony Munday, and Humphrey Dyson. THE SURVEY OF LONDON: CONTAINING The Original, Increase, Modern Estate and Government of that City, Methodically set down. With a Memorial of those famouser Acts of Charity, which for publick and Pious Vses have been bestowed by many Worshipfull Citizens and Benefactors. As also all the Ancient and Modern Monuments erected in the Churches, not only of those two famous Cities, LONDON and WESTMINSTER, but (now newly added) Four miles compass. Begun first by the pains and industry of John Stow, in the year 1598. Afterwards inlarged by the care and diligence of A.M. in the year 1618. And now compleatly finished by the study &labour of A.M., H.D. and others, this present year 1633. Whereunto, besides many Additions (as appears by the Contents) are annexed divers Alphabetical Tables, especially two, The first, an index of Things. The second, a Concordance of Names. London: Printed for Nicholas Bourne, 1633. STC 23345.5. Harvard University Library copy Reprint. Early English Books Online. Web.
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Strype, John, John Stow, Anthony Munday, and Humphrey Dyson. A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster. Vol. 2. London, 1720. Remediated by The Making of the Modern World.
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George Peele is mentioned in the following documents:
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William Shakespeare is mentioned in the following documents:
William Shakespeare authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Munday, Anthony, Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, and William Shakespeare. Sir Thomas More. Ed. Vittorio Gabrieli and Giorgio Melchiori. Revels Plays. Manchester; New York: Manchester UP, 1990. Print.
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Shakespeare, William. All’s Well That Ends Well. Ed. Helen Ostovich. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Antony and Cleopatra. Ed. Randall Martin. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. The Comedy of Errors. Ed. Matthew Steggle. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. The first part of the contention betwixt the two famous houses of Yorke and Lancaster with the death of the good Duke Humphrey: and the banishment and death of the Duke of Suffolke, and the tragicall end of the proud Cardinall of VVinchester, vvith the notable rebellion of Iacke Cade: and the Duke of Yorkes first claime vnto the crowne. London, 1594. STC26099. [Transcription available from Internet Shakespeare Editions. Web.]
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Shakespeare, William. Henry IV, Part 1. Ed. Rosemary Gaby. Internet Shakespeare Editions. 11 May 2012. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Henry V. Ed. James D. Mardock. Internet Shakespeare Editions. 11 May 2012. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. King Lear. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 1201–54.
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Shakespeare, William. King Richard III. Ed. James R. Siemon. London: Methuen, 2009. The Arden Shakespeare.
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Shakespeare, William. The Life of King Henry the Eighth. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 919–64.
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Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 414–54.
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Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. Ed. Janelle Jenstad. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Ed. Suzanne Westfall. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies Published according to the true originall copies. London, 1623. STC 22273. [Book facsimiles available from Internet Shakespeare Editions. Web.]
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Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Ed. Grechen Minton. Internet Shakespeare Editions. 11 May 2012. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. The Passionate Pilgrim. Ed. Hardy M. Cook. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. The Phoenix and the Turtle. Ed. Hardy M. Cook. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Richard II. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 740–83.
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Shakespeare, William. Richard the Third (Modern). Ed. Adrian Kiernander. Internet Shakespeare Editions. 6 March 2012. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. The Second Part of King Henry the Sixth. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 552–984.
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Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. Ed. Brent Whitted and Paul Yachnin. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Titus Andronicus. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 966–1004.
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Shakespeare, William. Troilus and Cressida. Ed. W. L. Godshalk. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Twelfth Night. Ed. David Carnegie and Mark Houlahan. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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Shakespeare, William. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Ed. Melissa Walter. Internet Shakespeare Editions. Open.
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John Squire is mentioned in the following documents:
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John Taylor is mentioned in the following documents:
John Taylor authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Taylor, JohnAll the Workes of John Taylor the Water-Poet. London: J[ohn] B[eale, Elizabeth Allde, Bernard Alsop, Thomas Fawcet], and James Boler. STC 23725. Print.
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Taylor, John.
The Praise and Vertue of a Jayle and Jaylers.
All the Workes of Iohn Taylor The Water Poet. 1630. London: Scolar, 1973. STC 23725. -
Taylor, John. Taylors travels and circular perambulation, through, and by more then thirty times twelve signes of the Zodiack, of the famous cities of London and Westminster With the honour and worthinesse of the vine, the vintage, the wine, and the vintoner; with an alphabeticall description, of all the taverne signes in the cities, suburbs, and liberties aforesaid, and significant epigrams upon the said severall signes. London, 1636. STC 23805. Web. EEBO. Subscr. EEBO
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John Webster is mentioned in the following documents:
John Webster authored or edited the following items in MoEML’s bibliography:
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Webster, John. The dramatic works of John Webster. Vol. 3. Ed. William Hazlitt. London: John Russell Smith, 1897. Print.
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Webster, John. The Tragedy of the Dutcheſſe of Malfy. London: Nicholas Okes, 1623. STC 25176. Subscr. EEBO.
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Webster, John. The Works of John Webster: An Old-Spelling Critical Edition. 3 vols. Ed. David Gunby, David Carnegie, and Macdonald P. Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. Print.
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Webster, John. The Works of John Webster. Ed. Alexander Dyce. Rev. ed. London: Edward Moxon, 1857. Print.
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London’s Genius
Personification of London’s genius. Appears as an allegorical character in mayoral shows.London’s Genius is mentioned in the following documents:
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Sir Philip Sidney is mentioned in the following documents:
Locations
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London is mentioned in the following documents:
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The Thames is mentioned in the following documents:
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St. Paul’s Churchyard
Surrounding St. Paul’s Cathedral, St. Paul’s Churchyard has had a multi-faceted history in use and function, being the location of burial, crime, public gathering, and celebration. Before its destruction during the civil war, St. Paul’s Cross was located in the middle of the churchyard, providing a place for preaching and the delivery of Papal edicts (Thornbury).St. Paul’s Churchyard is mentioned in the following documents:
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Cheapside Street
Cheapside, one of the most important streets in early modern London, ran east-west between the Great Conduit at the foot of Old Jewry to the Little Conduit by St. Paul’s churchyard. The terminus of all the northbound streets from the river, the broad expanse of Cheapside separated the northern wards from the southern wards. It was lined with buildings three, four, and even five stories tall, whose shopfronts were open to the light and set out with attractive displays of luxury commodities (Weinreb and Hibbert 148). Cheapside was the centre of London’s wealth, with many mercers’ and goldsmiths’ shops located there. It was also the most sacred stretch of the processional route, being traced both by the linear east-west route of a royal entry and by the circular route of the annual mayoral procession.Cheapside Street is mentioned in the following documents:
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Guildhall is mentioned in the following documents:
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Tower of London is mentioned in the following documents:
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Temple Bar
Temple Bar was one of the principle entrances to the city of London, dividing the Strand to the west and Fleet Street to the east. It was an ancient right of way and toll gate. Walter Thornbury dates the wooden gate structure shown in the Agas Map to the early Tudor period, and describes a number of historical pageants that processed through it, including the funeral procession of Henry V, and it was the scene of King James I’s first entry to the city (Thornbury 1878). The wooden structure was demolished in 1670 and a stone gate built in its place (Sugden 505).Temple Bar is mentioned in the following documents:
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Westminster is mentioned in the following documents:
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Whitehall
Whitehall Palace, the Palace of Whitehall or simply Whitehall, was one of the most complex and sizeable locations in the entirety of early modern Europe. As the primary place of residence for monarchs from 1529 to 1698, Whitehall was an architectural testament to the shifting sociopolitical, religious, and aesthetic currents of Renaissance England. Edward H. Shugden describes the geospatial location of Whitehall in noting that[i]t lay on the left bank of the Thames, and extended from nearly the point where Westminster Bdge. now crosses the river to Scotland Yard, and from the river back to St. James’s Park
(Sugden 564-565).Whitehall is mentioned in the following documents:
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Little Conduit (Cheapside)
The Little Conduit in Cheapside, also known as the Pissing Conduit, stood at the western end of Cheapside outside the north corner of Paul’s Churchyard. On the Agas map, one can see two water cans on the ground just to the right of the conduit.Little Conduit (Cheapside) is mentioned in the following documents:
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The Inns of Court
The four principal constituents of the Inns of Court were:The Inns of Court is mentioned in the following documents:
Organizations
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Fishmongers’ Company
Worshipful Company of Fishmongers
The Fishmongers’ Company was one of the twelve great companies of London, formed in 1536 out of the merger of the Stock Fishmongers and the Salt Fishmongers. The Fishmongers were fourth in the order of precedence established in 1515. The Worshipful Company of Fishmongers is still active and maintains a website at http://www.fishhall.org.uk/ that includes a history of the company.This organization is mentioned in the following documents:
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Merchant Taylors’ Company
Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors
The Merchant Taylors’ Company was one of the twelve great companies of London. Since 1484, the Merchant Taylors and the Skinners have alternated precedence annually; the Merchant Taylors are now sixth in precedence in odd years and seventh in even years, changing precedence at Easter. The Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors is still active and maintains a website at http://www.merchanttaylors.co.uk/ that includes a history of the company and a list of historical milestones.This organization is mentioned in the following documents:
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Haberdashers’ Company
Worshipful Company of Haberdashers
The Haberdashers’ Company was one of the twelve great companies of London. The Haberdashers were eighth in the order of precedence established in 1515. The Worshipful Company of Haberdashers is still active and maintains a website at http://www.haberdashers.co.uk/ that includes a history of the company and history of their hall.This organization is mentioned in the following documents:
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Ironmongers’ Company
Worshipful Company of Ironmongers
The Ironmongers’ Company was one of the twelve great companies of London. The Ironmongers were tenth in the order of precedence established in 1515. The Worshipful Company of Ironmongers is still active and maintains a website at http://www.ironmongers.org/ that includes a history of the company.This organization is mentioned in the following documents:
Glossary
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city waits
This term is tagged in the following documents:
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masque
A courtly spectacle with elaborate scenic design celebrating royal events and often incorporating aristocrats as masquers. In early modern England, the masque was pioneered by the designer Inigo Jones and the poet Ben Jonson. It was associated with James I and Charles I. (ST)This term is tagged in the following documents:
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mayoral show
This term is tagged in the following documents:
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royal entry
A ceremony celebrating the formal passage of a ruler through a city for a coronation or another festive occasion. Also known as a triumphal entry. (ST)This term is tagged in the following documents:
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sea spectacle
A waterborne pageant or set of festivities that welcomed a monarch or dignitary, often involving fireworks and reenacting naval battles or legendary sea quests. Also known as a water pageant or a pageant by water. (ST)This term is tagged in the following documents:
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soundscape
Any acoustic field of study, often the aggregate sounds of a given environment that are perceptible to the human ear. (ST)This term is tagged in the following documents: